(Why the Oxford Comma—or Serial Comma—Is So Cool!)

The comma punctuation mark highlights a shorter, softer pause in a sentence than a full stop. It is a cue to take a quick breath when reading anything aloud, while the full stop represents a longer pause. Articles with too many unnecessary commas can be fragmented, but those with too few can leave you slightly breathless. These are some of the most important comma usage rules to be aware of for your articles or books.

Coordinate Conjunctions

Coordinate conjunctions are joiner words that connect two independent clauses in single sentences. And, but, for, nor, yet, or, and so (remember the FANBOYS acronym) are the coordinate conjunctions with which we can join independent clauses that could otherwise stand alone in separate sentences. You should always add a comma after coordinate conjunctions that join two independent clauses in sentences. Here are some examples of coordinate conjunction comma usage:

• “The sprinter ran fast, but he still lost the race.”
• “You can go to the cinema with me, or you can go to the beach on your own if you prefer.”
• “The man walked down the street, and then he brought a newspaper from the newsstand.”

Each of those examples includes two independent clauses that could stand alone as sentences. The coordinate conjunctions and, or, and but join the clauses into single sentences with their commas. Note that joining independent clauses with commas alone, without suitable coordinate conjunctions, is called the comma splice, which is something to avoid.

List Series

You should always include commas to separate different items in lists included within sentences. For example, orange, yellow, blue, indigo, violet, red, and green are the seven colors of the rainbow. An alternative to using commas is to add lists with bullet-point formatting, but you must always use commas for those within sentences.

However, UK and US English have different stylistic preferences for serial commas that separate the last two items in lists. The US English preference is to include a comma between the last two items in a list. This is not so much the case in UK English, which has a preference to exclude the serial comma between the last couple of list items. Choose whichever serial comma preference you prefer, but be consistent with usage.

Non-Restrictive Clauses

A non-restrictive clause is a non-essential part of a sentence that provides extra information (similar to brackets). Such clauses can be in the middle or at the end of a sentence. We should always add commas for setting off non-restrictive clauses, typically added with phrases like such as, otherwise, and which. These are some examples of non-restrictive clauses set off with commas:

• “There are many great historic attractions in Rome, such as the Pantheon, Trevi Fountain, Colosseum, Spanish Steps, and Castel Sant’Angelo.”
• “The video game, which I purchased from Steam, was grossly overrated.”
• “My pet dog, otherwise a Bulldog, barks like crazy.”

Dates

It is necessary to include commas for the US date format of MM-DD-YY. For example, the full date, June 6, 2025, should have a comma in between its day and year. This comma is necessary for separating two different numbers. However, a monthly date like June 2025 does not need to include a comma.

Coordinate Adjectives

Coordinate adjectives are two or more adjacent nouns for describing the same subject or noun. We should include commas in between coordinate adjectives within sentences. Here are a few examples of coordinate adjectives with commas included for them:

• “It was a cold, wet day in Glasgow.”
• “I took a holiday on a large, overcrowded cruise ship.”
• “Snooker is one of the dullest, least energetic sports to play.”

Quotations

It is a general rule to introduce short one-sentence quotations within paragraphs with commas. For example, the actor Matthew McConaughey is quoted as saying, “Life is a series of commas, not periods.” However, the AP Style guide advocates using colons for introducing quotes of two sentences or longer.

Commas are also used for closing quotes within sentences in American English. If you prefer to start a sentence with a quote and include attribution at the end, add a comma to the end of the quote before attributing the source. “Life is a series of commas, not periods,” said the actor  Matthew McConaughey.

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Transitional Phrases

Transitional phrases are phrases and words for connecting related ideas or showing contrasts at the beginning of sentences. Such phrases like however, so, nevertheless, consequently, as a result, for example, and thus can enhance the flow of articles or books when included. Always add commas after transitional phrases that start sentences, like in these examples:

• “So, who can tell me if we need to head north or south?”
• “Consequently, this vehicle won’t start.”
• “Nevertheless, Chelsea still won the match despite the bad start.”

Introductory Phrases

An introductory phrase is a set of words added before a sentence’s main clause. The purpose of most introductory phrases is to add extra context, more description, or set the stage for the main clauses in sentences. Infinitive, absolute, appositive, prepositional, and participial are the five main types of introductory phrases for starting sentences. Such phrases should always have commas that separate them from the main sentence clauses, as in these examples:

• “To move the rock, we’ll need a crane.”
• “An astonishingly colorful and vibrant show, the musical production was certainly worth watching.”
• “After bombing Pearl Harbor, the Japanese planes returned to their aircraft carriers.”

Direct Address

Direct address is a writing construct for the direct addressing of a person or group. Fictional books typically include more instances of direct address for character dialogue. When adding a direct address at the beginning of a sentence, you should add a comma after the noun. Add commas before and after directly addressed names added mid-sentence. These are some examples of comma usage for direct address:

• “Mr. Andrews, don’t forget the prior agreement we had.”
• “Billy, please answer the telephone.”
• “Dad, where did you put the door keys?”
• “Who knows, Dr. Smith, where your lost documents might be.”

Geographical Names

You must include commas for separating two connected geographical names. Connected geographical names are two parts of the same destination, such as city and country. Also, note that additional commas should be included after related geographical names in the middle of sentences. These are some geographical destinations with commas added to separate them:

• “The 1996 Olympic Games were held in Atlanta, Georgia.”
• “I took my vacation in Plymouth, Devon.”
• “I have lived in London, England, for many years.”

There are numerous other comma usage rules beyond those discussed here. However, the comma rules above are some of the most important ones that cover the most common usage scenarios. Remembering those rules will likely ensure more accurate comma placement in your articles, books, or other content.

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(10 Handy Digital Tools for Freelance Writers.)

Today, print and digital publications are primarily split between the US and UK English variants. American magazines and websites usually expect articles to be in US English, but it’s the other way around for UK publications. This means freelance writers might sometimes need to adapt to both English variations for American or British publications, which can be confusing. These are some of the most notable differences between US and UK English to be aware of for your articles.

Spelling

Spelling is one of the biggest differences between US and UK English. American spellings of numerous words differ from those of UK English. The disparity primarily lies in how the endings of words are spelled. Some of these spelling variations can be summarized as follows:

• -or instead -our: Words ending with -or in American English end with -our in UK English (e.g. color instead of colour).
• -ize instead of -ise: Words ending with -ize in American English end with -ise for alternative British spellings (e.g. organize instead of organise).
• -er instead of -re: Words that end with -er in US English have an -re ending for UK spelling (e.g. center rather than centre).
• -ense instead of ence: Words ending with -ense in US English are spelled with -ence in Britain (e.g. license and licence).

Those ending differences can affect the spelling of a wide variety of common words, such as harbor, prioritize, theater, pretense, and recognize. Another difference is that British spelling has a double l rule for words like canceled, traveler, and marvelous. Those words are spelled cancelled, traveller, and marvellous in UK English.

Vocabulary

British and American vocabulary differences are also quite broad. Americans have different names for some things, but seldom will this vocabulary difference cause confusion. These are some of the preferred American names for things that differ from UK English:

• Movie
• Apartment
• Fries
• Cookie
• Pants
• Elevator
• Vacation
• Trash
• Soccer

The British English alternatives for those American nouns are film, flat, chips, biscuit, trousers, lift, holiday, rubbish, and football. Trousers and football are two vocabulary variations that can confuse. Although Americans call trousers pants, they are not the same things in England. Pants is the alternative name for underpants in Britain.

Soccer and American football are different sports in the United States, but that’s not so much the case in Britain. Americans call English football soccer, which is the name of that sport for most US publications. However, UK magazines and websites always call the ball-kicking sport football.

Quotations

Double-quotation marks are used around quotes and speech in US English, as in the first paragraph of this article. Americans add single quotation marks around quotes within quotes. American English quotations always include commas and periods within the quotation marks.

The opposite is true for quotations in UK English. The British style adds single quotation marks around primary quotations. Double-quote marks are used for secondary quotations within quoted passages or speech. However, the US quote style is becoming more prevalent in UK English.

Title Abbreviations

The abbreviations of formal titles in American English always include periods after them. For example, Mr., Mrs., Dr., and Col. are abbreviated titles for which periods are included in US English. However, this requirement for title abbreviation periods doesn’t apply to UK English.

Date Formats

The US and UK have different date formats that apply to their alternative English variants. Americans write dates with the MM/DD/YY format. For example, the 11/25/2024 date is written as November 25, 2024, in US English. Commas are always included between the day and year numbers for the US date format.

UK dates include days before months with the DD/MM/YY format. This format changes the 11/25/2024 date to 25/11/2024 in Britain. The written form of that date in British English is 25 November 2024, for which a comma is not required.

Time

There is a small stylistic difference between US and UK English for writing clock times. The Americans always include a colon for times, such as 11:30, for example. In UK English, a period rather than a colon is placed between the hours and minutes, such as 11.30.

Collective Nouns

In US English, collective nouns for organizations, companies, bands, and other groups are usually considered singular subjects. This means groups are more widely treated as single units in US English. Consequently, singular verbs and possessive pronouns are more widely used for collective nouns, as in these examples:

“Apple has released its latest iPhone.”

“The band is playing music in the concert hall.”

“My team is going to win the match.”

However, collective nouns can be plural or singular depending more on the context in UK English. UK English generally places more emphasis on group members for collective nouns, especially sports teams which are always treated as plural subjects. For example, “The band are playing music in the concert hall” is correct in UK English.

The Serial Comma

The serial comma between the last two things in lists is favored in US English. The American Chicago Manual of Style and APA Publication Manual recommends using serial commas in lists. For example, a list of colors like green, blue, purple, and red includes a serial comma between the final two items.

The serial comma is not so widely used in UK English. However, exceptions are sometimes made when necessary to include serial commas for clarity or in more complex lists. This usage is comparable to the Associated Press Style, which recommends only including serial commas for complex lists.

Got and Gotten

In US English, gotten is the past participle of get for more dynamic situations that refer to obtaining or becoming. However, the past participle of get is always got in UK English. For example, the Americans say “I have gotten very tired,” but in UK English that should be “I have got very tired.”

How to Convert Between US and UK English

You can use word processor software and online tools to seamlessly switch between US and UK English when needed. Most word processors include alternative language settings you can select to switch between American and British English, along with other variations. Setting your word processor to US and UK English will at least ensure 100 percent spelling consistency for your articles.

I recommend utilizing the freely available Grammarly online tool for proofing your articles according to US or UK English SPAG differences. To do this, click the Sign up with Google button on this Grammarly page and input your Google account details. Or click Sign Up It’s Free if you don’t have a Google account.

When you’ve logged into Grammarly, set it to US or UK English. Click the menu button at the top-left corner of Grammarly. Select the American or British option on the Language preference drop-down menu.

You can now apply UK or US English editing by clicking the New Document button. Copy and paste an article’s content into the Grammarly text editor with the Ctrl + C and Ctrl + V keyboard shortcuts. Then, apply corrections highlighted by the red and blue underlines in Grammarly.

There are also various online US to UK English conversion tools you can try by pasting article text into them and clicking their Convert buttons. However, many of these tools seem limited to spelling conversions and corrections you can apply with word processing software. Check out the pages below to try some of those converter tools:

• British to American Translator
• Ditto Transcripts
• US to UK English
• British to American English Converter

Whether you use UK or US English in your articles should primarily depend on your general audience rather than your native preference. The magazines or websites you submit articles to will likely prefer contributors to stick to either US or UK English. You can ensure consistency of approach by selecting American or British English options within your word processor and the Grammarly proofing tool.

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(Beware the Don’t-Do-This Brigade.)

But not all rules are as noticeable to readers (or as controversial) as the amount of space between sentences. And in a Manual that now runs to more than 1,000 pages in print, many of the finer points are bound to go unnoticed by anyone not specifically looking for them.

Large or small, each update for each new edition has one of two goals: (a) to improve an existing rule, either in light of new information or to register a shift in how things are usually done, or (b) to add new (and sometimes overlooked) content. Both goals are pursued in the same general spirit of bringing the Manual up to date for our audience of writers, editors, publishers, and others who work with words.

From Style to Substance

Each update in the Manual is significant in some way, but here are five that matter more than most.

1. Prepositions in titles of works. 

Readers are used to seeing shorter prepositions lowercased in titles, as the word of in Leaves of Grass, the title of the 19th-century poetry collection by Walt Whitman. Newspapers, Wikipedia, and most other places both online and off typically follow either a three- or a four-letter limit for such words—that is, capitalizing any preposition longer than for or with. Chicago’s advice to lowercase prepositions in titles “regardless of length,” as first clarified explicitly in the 12th edition (1969), was starting to look dated. 

Not only could we no longer justify writing A River Runs through It (the title of a 1970s story collection by Norman Maclean, in which a preposition happens to be the longest word), but who would object to the second capital A in Much Ado About Nothing? For the 18th edition, Chicago has therefore adopted a four-letter limit, a change that should make life easier for editors who follow Chicago style.

2. An initial “The” in the name of a periodical. 

Until now, the Manual always said to treat an initial definite article in the name of a newspaper or magazine as part of the surrounding text, as in “the New York Times.” But as its masthead shows (both in print and online), that paper’s name includes the The, something today’s writers and editors should have little trouble confirming. And just as Chicago has always deferred to the title page of a book for the presence or absence of an initial article—for example, writing The Chicago Manual of Style (initial The) but the MLA Handbook (no initial The)—we now recommend a similar approach for periodicals. 

So we now advise referring to The New York Times (or, in shortened form, the Times, not to be confused with The Times [UK]) but, for example, the Chicago Tribune. Any extra time spent looking things up can be recouped when it comes to source citations, where an initial The in such titles can be omitted (as before).

3. Place of publication. 

Source citations for books have included the place of publication (usually a city), which traditionally appears on the title page, for as long as the Manual has been published. Accordingly, a footnote would cite the 17th edition of the Manual as follows (note the word “Chicago” at the beginning of the parentheses): 1. The Chicago Manual of Style, 17th ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2017). 

Most other guides have eliminated that requirement in recent years, and now we have also. If the place is important (and not obvious from the publisher’s name), an author can ask to make an exception—or simply mention it in the text. Meanwhile, the many editors and authors alike who advocated for this change will breathe a sigh of relief.

4. Singular “they.” 

Chicago foresaw the value of the singular they more than 30 years ago, in the 14th edition (1993), stating in a footnote that “the University of Chicago Press recommends the ‘revival’ of the singular use of they and their,” citing usage by Austen and Shakespeare (among others). Thirty-one years later, the Manual has endorsed singular they explicitly—and not just in a footnote. 

Not only does the new edition once again cover referential singular they (which can refer to people who don’t identify with either he or she), but we now more fully acknowledge the value of the generic singular they for referring to someone whose gender is unknown or irrelevant or must be concealed for reasons of privacy. Anyone who knows their pronouns from their antecedents (see how that works?) will appreciate having this tool in their editorial arsenal.

5. Indigenous languages and sources. 

Chicago has long included a chapter on languages other than English that are commonly encountered by academic writers working in an otherwise English-language context. Most of this coverage (which now extends to more than 30 languages) is limited to special characters and other typographic considerations in addition to conventions for capitalization and quotations. 

But for this edition, with the help of experts, we’ve not only added Indigenous languages to our list but also, to complement this new coverage, advice on citing Indigenous sources of knowledge. We hope that writers and editors will come away with a greater understanding of what to consider when working with sources by or about Indigenous peoples.

All of us who worked on the 18th edition of The Chicago Manual of Style hope that writers, editors, and anyone else who works with words will benefit from these and all the other updates and refinements in the 18th edition. For a detailed list, see “What’s New in the 18th Edition” at CMOS Online.

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(3 Fake Rules of Grammar.)

The things they pick on are always fairly common, of course, because if nobody feels inclined to actually use some form of words it will never catch the eye of the self-appointed writing gurus. No writing guide tells you to avoid typing every word twice (writing writing like like this this), because nobody would dream of doing it, which means you never encounter it.

The expressions they warn you against occur in prose that you will read every day, but you are supposed to take it on faith from writing advisers that you should rise above those other writers and avoid writing the way they write. Simon Heffer (in the preface to Strictly English, 2010) says quite explicitly: “I happen to believe that the ‘evidence’ of how I see English written by others, including some professional writers, is not something by which I wish to be influenced.”

This is the exact opposite of what good foreign language teachers, or for that matter dance instructors, will insist on. They will try to get you to pay close attention to the people who speak the language you are trying to learn, or dance the way you want to be able to dance, and follow their example.

Yet in the more old-fashioned writing guides you will find warnings against beginning sentences with ‘And’ (extremely common, and seen in the second sentence of this article), or ending sentences with a preposition (also seen in my second sentence), or placing an adverb after ‘to’ (as in my third sentence). Strunk and White’s The Elements of Style even goes so far as to tell you to avoid writing “some such perfunctory expression as there is”—deprecating existential clauses, as in my opening sentence.

The assumption is that some phrases or types of sentence that naturally occur to experienced writers or speakers must nonetheless be shunned: Though frequently occurring, they are in some way unsavory or imperfect or objectionable—it’s never quite clear what adjective would capture the nature of the objection, but when pressed to go beyond mere personal preferences or peeves they will say that the things they deprecate are forbidden by rules of grammar.

My book The Truth About English Grammar provides a no-prerequisites introduction to some of the basic principles of grammar, and because I often have to note that the how-to-write people often have no grammatical leg to stand on, one reviewer in Britain declared that I am “always on the side of the ordinary Joe against the nitpickers.” 

Check out Geoffrey K. Pullum’s The Truth About English Grammar here:

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That is the familiar stereotype of the careful descriptive grammarian: a kind of 1960s anarchist who says “If it feels good, do it.” And that is not my view at all. This ordinary Joe character, whoever he may be, will get no leniency from me if he’s wrong: I’m trying to state clearly what the most basic rules of English grammar are, and heaven forfend that you should violate them simply because you feel like it.

But I do sometimes have to stress that writers should largely write the way other writers have written, not the way writing tutors think they should. Because if the rules of English grammar aren’t based on what we find in good literature and the best journalism, there is no basis for saying they are the rules of English.

Here’s an example. If you have a clear enough understanding of basic grammar to know what an adverb is (and I do try to provide a clear definition backed up with illustrative examples), then you should be aware that people talk nonsense about such words, demanding that you should shun them.

“Write with nouns and verbs, not with adjectives and adverbs,” says E.B. White—an outrageous suggestion that no writer follows. “Most adverbs are unnecessary,” declares William Zinsser in On Writing Well (1976)—as if blind to the vital role of the third word in his title and vast numbers of the other adverbs he uses. Stephen King (On Writing, 2000) goes so far as to assert that “the road to hell is paved with adverbs”—though he makes no attempt to get off that downbound road in his own brilliant horror writing, which is as liberally graced with adverbs as other competent writing.

Having a reasonably sound grasp of the basic concepts of grammar will not turn a poor writer into a brilliant one, but it does provide the key advantage of enabling a writer to see that these famous writing mavens are spouting nonsense.

And so are all the hundreds of writing advisors and teaching assistants who, since early in the 20th century, have railed against passive clauses. Frequently they don’t do well on recognizing passives: The concept is often confused with the notion of being somehow evasive about agency or responsibility. “Mistakes were made” is the go-to example, repeated ad nauseam in writing guides, and it is indeed a passive clause (of the short agentless kind, with no by-phrase); but people often make the mistake of thinking that “Mistakes occurred” is passive too (it certainly avoids naming the culprits, but it isn’t a passive).

Passives get lambasted as dull, wordy, slow, and boring. This is hogwash. If you know how to recognize one, and you pick up the very first Jack Reacher novel by Lee Child (Killing Floor, 1997), you’ll find it begins: “I was arrested in Eno’s diner.” Stark, dramatic, intriguing: Why was our protagonist arrested? Who was accusing him, and of what? The novel opens with a perfectly judged passive because Lee Child has been reading books avidly since he was old enough to walk to the local library in Birmingham. He knows how English works.

Child chose exactly the sort of sentence that the enemies of the passive insist you should avoid. And soon other passives appear in the text, like “I was walked to the door” on the second page (Reacher didn’t stride to the door, he was walked with his arms held, like a toddler or a drunk, by four armed Georgia cops). Child knows what he’s doing as a writer. He deploys adverbs and passive clauses and all the other resources English offers, whatever is exactly right for the job. He doesn’t listen to the don’t-do-this brigade. And he went on from Killing Floor to sell a hundred million books.

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(100+ Grammar Rules for Writers.)

One of the primary reasons driving this reversal is that research is showing that removing standardized test scores from college admissions actually hurt low-income students the most. In addition, the SAT has officially gone digital in 2024. For the first time in almost 100 years, the SAT has gone from a paper-based standardized test to a digital online exam. 

The Digital SAT contains new question types, content, and format. Parents and students should be aware of these changes and prepare for them appropriately. Here are some tips that we teach students in our Prep Expert Digital SAT Courses to help you get ready for the Reading and Writing modules of the new Digital SAT.

Avoid These 5 “Kiss of Death” Phrases on SAT Writing

These five phrases are the “kiss of death” for any answer choice on SAT Writing questions. The presence of any of these phrases will almost always make an SAT Writing answer choice incorrect.

Writing Kiss of Death Phrase #1: “Being”

“Being” is a form of “to be” that creates sentences with passive voice constructions. An SAT Writing answer choice that contains the word “being” is typically incorrect because this word can lead to weak or passive sentences.

Writing Kiss of Death Phrase #2: “Is why” or “Is because”

“Is why” and “is because” are colloquial phrases that are often used in everyday speech, but students should not select them on the SAT grammar questions. An SAT Writing answer choice that contains the phrase “is why” or “is because” is typically incorrect because both phrases are informal and redundant.

Writing Kiss of Death Phrase #3: “There is” or “There are”

“There is” and “there are” are phrases that can make sentences vague and wordy. An SAT Writing answer choice that contains the phrase “there is” or “there are” is typically incorrect because these phrases are wordy and can lead to passive voice.

Writing Kiss of Death Phrase #4: “It Is”

“It is” is another phrase that can make sentences vague and wordy. An SAT Writing answer choice that contains the phrase “it is” is typically incorrect because this phrase is often passive and unclear.

Writing Kiss of Death Phrase #5: “Very”

“Very” is an imprecise adverb. An SAT Writing answer choice that contains the word “very” is typically incorrect because this word is too informal for the SAT.

Avoid These 5 “Kiss of Death” Phrases on SAT Reading

Similar to SAT Writing questions, SAT Reading questions also have certain words and phrases that are almost always incorrect. These five phrases are the “kiss of death” for any answer choice on SAT Reading questions. The presence of any of these phrases will almost always make an SAT Reading answer choice incorrect.

Reading Kiss of Death Phrase #1: “Always”

“Always” indicates that something happens at all times or on all occasions, without exception. An SAT Reading answer choice that contains the word “always” is incorrect because it is an absolute term that is too extreme and inflexible.

Reading Kiss of Death Phrase #2: “Every-” Prefix (“Everyone,” “Everything,” etc.)

The “every-” prefix means “each and all” or “all the members of a group.” It forms words indicating that something includes all the individuals in a group or every instance of a particular thing. An SAT Reading answer choice that contains the prefix “every” is incorrect because it presents an absolute statement not supported by the text. The use of the “every” prefix creates an impression of universality or completeness that is rarely accurate.

Reading Kiss of Death Phrase #3: “Only”

“Only” refers to the sole or exclusive thing in a given context. It can also indicate that there are no other alternatives or possibilities. An SAT Reading answer choice that contains the word “only” is incorrect because it indicates that there is no other similar item or action in the entire universe, which is difficult to prove.

Reading Kiss of Death Phrase #4: “Same”

“Same” indicates that two or more things are identical, meaning that they are not different in any way. An SAT Reading answer choice that contains the word “same” is incorrect because it indicates that two items are completely identical, which is again difficult to prove.

Reading Kiss of Death Phrase #5: “Unique”

“Unique” indicates that something is unlike anything else in its category and is distinguished by its singularity. An SAT Reading answer choice that contains the word “unique” is incorrect because it indicates that something is one of a kind, which is almost impossible to prove.

Check out Dr. Shaan Patel, MD, MBA’s Prep Expert Digital SAT Playbook here:

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(What’s the Difference Between a Hyphen and a Dash (and an Em Dash)?)

First, let’s try a test. How sharp are your eyes? Can you catch the homophone errors in the following paragraph? Count the number of errors.

Homophones are confusing words that can be tough to sea. When it comes too writing, individual choices our important. But how can won spot errors? Their is know shortcut two it. Awareness, knowledge, and editing are the best ways to bee proactive in the process to help assure each word is write.

How many homophones did you spot? Scroll to the end of the article to see the answer. If you didn’t catch all the errors, don’t fret. Practice and a few tips can help you get better.

Ultimately, writers want their readers to pay attention to the ideas on the page, so errors should be minimized. That way, readers are not distracted or confused by misuse.

To that end, there are two categories to consider: homophones and near-homophones. Homophones are words that have the same pronunciation but different meanings (words like to/too/two and their/there/they’re). Near-homophones are words that are close in sound but not exact (words like assure/ensure and lose/loose). These words can be difficult to spot and elusive to word processing program tools designed to catch errors.

How to Catch Homophones While Editing

There are, however, some smart ways to approach the editing process when looking for both homophones and near-homophones.

• Consider parts of speech. Know the difference between how words function in a sentence. For instance, “cite” is usually a verb that means “to quote.” “Site” is usually a noun that means “location.” “Than” is a conjunction that compares (“I like this more than that”) while “then” is an adverb that denotes time (“I walked, then I ran”). When in doubt about use, let a dictionary guide you.
• Beware verb tense. Some words change form with an added ending but may sound similar when pronounced aloud, such as “ban” versus “banned” or “bias” versus “biased.” Enunciate words carefully when reading aloud and check their use on the page to ensure accuracy.
• Use preferred spelling conventions. If writing in American English, opt for common spellings that may be different than British conventions, such as “theater” instead of “theatre” or “check” instead of “cheque.” The same is true of preferred usage, such as the American propensity to use “toward” rather than the British “towards.”
• Check for contractions. Words with an apostrophe are a shortened form of two words, so look for cases of “its” versus “it’s” or “whose” versus “who’s.” If the sentence makes sense with the full words (“it is” or “who is”), then the contraction is the correct form.

How to Correct Homophones While Editing

Then, these approaches can be used to aid writers in correcting errors through the editing process.

• Try a different form of proofreading. Print a document to edit as a hard copy. Seeing the words away from a digital screen can sometimes help. Additionally, missing letters or transposed letters can change the meaning of sentences, so increasing the font size or style to see typos can alert to such errors as “where” instead of “were” or “quite” instead of “quiet.”
• Keep a homophone log. Some writers keep this in a notebook; some prefer an ongoing digital document. Either way, knowing which words are commonly confused by you can help you look more closely for them in each of your writing projects. Write short explanations in the log that you can remember, like distinguishing between “weather” (the word that refers to climate) and “whether” (the word that refers to a choice) or “everyday” (the adjective form) and “every day” (the noun form).
• Beware autocorrect. Fast typing can result in word processing programs making changes that writers don’t intend, such as “defiantly” for “definitely” or “constipate” for “concentrate.” The wrong word can be disastrous in a sentence, so don’t rely exclusively on autocorrect as a means of editing.
• Err on the side of formality. Although “u” may be common in text messages, use “you” in professional cases. The same is true of “thru” versus “through,” with the second being more formal. When in doubt, a dictionary can also be consulted.

Language is nuanced, and writers play an important role in using that nuance to communicate ideas to an audience. Being careful and proofreading for homophones will help writers communicate more clearly.

How Many Homophones Were There?

There are 10 errors of homophone usage in the paragraph:

Homophones are confusing words that can be tough to sea. When it comes too writing, individual choices our important. But how can won spot errors? Their is know shortcut two it. Awareness, knowledge, and editing are the best ways to bee proactive in the process to help assure each word is write.

Here are the correct words:

Homophones are confusing words that can be tough to see. When it comes to writing, individual choices are important. But how can one spot errors? There is no shortcut to it. Awareness, knowledge, and editing are the best ways to be proactive in the process to help ensure each word is right.

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Some marks are straightforward and used frequently by writers. But some marks are more nuanced. In particular, the hyphen and the dash often get confused by writers. These are two distinct marks of punctuation, but what makes them so?

(Using Internal Dialogue To Reveal Character)

Let’s look at both marks to understand the difference between a hyphen and a dash.

Hyphens are used between words. Dashes are used between phrases. The length of each can help a writer remember this basic rule. When typing, a hyphen looks like this: (-). Two hyphens typed together form a dash: (–). Some word processing programs read the two hyphens automatically as the single mark of punctuation known as an em dash, which the program will process as this: (—).

At the word level, hyphens differentiate parts of words to help in readability. Consider these instances:

• To join numbers, like sixty-one or two-thirds
• To join words that function as a single adjective, like bluish-green or water-repellent
• To join certain prefixes, like ex-husband or mid-Atlantic
• To join single letters to a root word, like t-shirt or x-ray
• To aid in clarity of words that may be confusing otherwise, like mini-me or de-ice

At the sentence level, dashes differentiate phrases from the main sentence. Again, the goal here is readability. Consider these instances:

• To mark a shift in tone
• To emphasize a phrase
• To indicate a hesitation
• To identify an appositive (which renames something in a sentence)
• To set off material, including lists and definitions

An em dash can be used singularly, or em dashes can be paired when the sentence continues after the phrase. For example, these sentences are each structured with one em dash:

• She was shocked by what was behind the door—a ghost!
• The cat needed a diet—quite a tall order from the veterinarian.
• I read that book—and loved it!

These sentences are each structured with two em dashes because the thought needs to be completed after the phrase of interruption.

• The rent—$2,000 a month—was outrageous.
• I had to get all the ingredients—sugar, flour, eggs, peanut butter—for the cookies.
• One of the park’s trails—the Southern Rim Route—is five miles long.

In sentences such as those above, the em dash use is stylistic. Each sentence could certainly be rewritten another way—without the em dashes. There are always different ways to express the same thoughts. Just like word choices are individual, so are a writer’s punctuation choices.

Again, punctuation carries meaning. So, writers should always ask themselves if the punctuation they are using is effective. Does it help communicate the intended meaning? If so, keep it. If not, it may be time to revise.

Writers who are curious about hyphens and dashes may enjoy seeking out instances of their use in favorite works. Seeing examples in published pieces can help demystify these punctuation marks. For instance, in the well-known short story “The Birth-Mark,” hyphens and dashes are used—in all-encompassing ways—by writer Nathaniel Hawthorne. (See the hyphens and dashes there? What fun!)

Different writers will gravitate toward different styles. No matter what a writer’s individual preference, however, for marks of punctuation, the full range of marks within a language can be considered. Careful selection will allow writers to develop their own unique voices—and the punctuation will be there to augment it.

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In this post, Ellen discusses how her pop-up grammar advice stand led to her new nonfiction book, Rebel with a Clause, what she hopes readers get from the experience, and more!

Name: Ellen Jovin
Literary agent: Victoria Skurnick, Levine Greenberg Rostan Literary Agency
Book title: Rebel with a Clause: Tales and Tips from a Roving Grammarian
Publisher: HarperCollins
Release date: July 19, 2022
Genre/category: Nonfiction, grammar, language, general geekitude
Previous titles: English at Work, Essential Grammar for Business, Writing for Business
Elevator pitch for the book: I traveled nearly 30,000 miles around the U.S. to address the most pressing—and amusing—grammar questions of our time. Learn grammar while laughing your way through this groundbreaking new grammar travelogue!

IndieBound | Bookshop | Amazon
[WD uses affiliate links.]

What prompted you to write this book?

In 2018 I created a popup grammar-advice stand called the Grammar Table, which I set up outside my Manhattan apartment building so I could answer grammar questions from passersby. Right away I got a lot of traffic from grammar enthusiasts as well as people who don’t even like grammar, and visitors and friends started telling me it should be a book.

I already had an agent, so I wrote a proposal for her suggesting I take the Grammar Table around the U.S. and write about my megageeky experiences. I love road trips, I love grammar, I love chatting with strangers, and I believe in the societal importance of creating bonds based on what we have in common. This book was a chance to merge all of those interests.

My husband, Brandt Johnson, came with me and filmed all the Grammar Table encounters, and he is now making a grammar documentary about the table’s travels, so basically this was one long grammar party on the streets of this country!

How long did it take to go from idea to publication? And did the idea change during the process?

The idea of the book preceded publication of the book by 3.75 years. And yes, the idea did change once I was on the road, but only in that my geographic ambitions expanded. When I originally wrote the book proposal, I was thinking I’d go to some U.S. states, but once we got the hang of the Grammar Table road-trip rhythm, it became clear we could do all of the states, so that became the goal pretty early on.

Were there any surprises or learning moments in the publishing process for this title?

Yes, the biggest surprise was the arrival of a global pandemic. We had made it to 47 states when we were grounded by COVID, so instead of finishing the journey, I began writing. We do plan to hit the remaining three states—Hawaii, Alaska, and Connecticut—this year.

Another surprise was how many publishing terms I didn’t know, in spite of my lifelong reading habit. For example, I had to ask my editor what “first pages” were. Those are the first version of your book you see in layout, and the next version is called “second pages.”

I also read my own audiobook, and when I had to go back to the studio to redo a few sentences, the audiobook producer referred to those as “pickups.” To me that sounded like we were going to play basketball. Anyway, after all this, I have a bigger vocabulary!

Were there any surprises in the writing process for this book?

Yes, I am amazed that I am not better at this fairly advanced stage of my life at managing the emotional highs and lows that accompany the writing process. But I have mostly accepted that accepting the roller coaster is part of the deal for me. It is a privilege to be able to write the book you want to write, and I am terribly grateful for that opportunity.

What do you hope readers will get out of your book?

An appreciation of the joy, flexibility, and mutability of language, surprise at how many people care about language, a lot of laughs, and maybe a feeling of tenderness and empathy for our fellow human beings. Oh, and more grammar knowledge! Lots of grammar knowledge!

If you could share one piece of advice with other writers, what would it be?

To respect the importance of business skills to the success of creative projects. I have seen quite a few artistically gifted people get in their own way when it comes to practical details such as punctuality, marketing, and finances. Reliability and pragmatism are not to be disdained.

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(The Difference Between Allude vs. Elude.)

In a while, you may have it locked down too!

Awhile vs. A While

Awhile is an adverb that means “for a while.” The obvious question, what does “a while” mean?

The while in a while is a noun that means “a period of time.” If you can swap out a while with a period of time, then you’re likely dealing with the noun while.

Make sense?

Let’s go through a few examples:

Correct: He drank awhile after running five miles.
Incorrect: He drank a while after running five miles.

Correct: The best way to find the answer is to think for a while about the problem.
Incorrect: The best way to find the answer is to think for awhile about the problem.

Correct: You said you would sing awhile a while ago.
Incorrect: You said you would sing a while awhile ago.

One trick for keeping them straight is to remember awhile is an adverb and while is a noun. If we think awhile about their differences, then it shouldn’t take more than a while to figure out when to use which.

Learn more in the online course, Grammar and Mechanics, from Writer’s Digest University:

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(The Difference Between Heroin vs. Heroine.)

Let’s courageously dive in!

Heroes vs. Heros

Heroes is the plural form of hero. So if Bonnie Tyler were to need more than one hero (let’s say two), then she’d call out, “I need two heroes!” 

Heros is a genus of fish native to South America. I’m not sure if any Heros happen to be heroes, but they are definitely fish.

Make sense?

Let’s go through a few examples:

Correct: He doesn’t need a hero; he needs five heroes.
Incorrect: He doesn’t need a hero; he needs five heros.

Correct: The Avengers is a team comprised of several heroes.
Incorrect: The Avengers is a team comprised of several heros.

Correct: There are many fish species I don’t understand, including the Heros of South America.
Incorrect: There are many fish species I don’t understand, including the heroes of South America.

Remember to add an “-es” to hero when you need more than one. While South America surely has its fair share of heroes, it’s the only place (outside of an aquarium) that you’re likely to find Heros.

*****

Learn more in the online course, Grammar and Mechanics, from Writer’s Digest University:

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